ATS3004-Gender and Victimization-Free-Samples

Why are there different patterns of victimisation for women and men? Are current discourses and theories of risk useful for understanding the nexus of gender and crime? Discuss.

Introduction

Victimology studies various aspects of the psychology of the victim's behavior. There are two directions of victimology. The first direction focuses on victim of crime and the second direction focuses on physical, mental and social traits and signs that create a predisposition to the transformation of a person into a victim (crime, accident, destructive cult, etc.). According to modern criminological data, 10-15% of crimes committed against the health and dignity of the individual are accounted for by sexual violence. According to American criminologists, one in eight women in the US was raped at least once in their lives. Thus, in the United States, more than 12 million women were raped. Sexual violence can happen to any woman, anytime and anywhere. No one is guaranteed from this type of attack completely. Victimization can help in unearthing some of the possible factors that makes women easy victims than men.

Body/Discussion

Victimization is the process of acquiring victimization, or, in other words, it is the process of turning a person into a victim and its consequences. Victimization, thus, combines both dynamics (the realization of victimization) and statics (the realized victimhood). Even in ancient times, it was observed that the fate of a person depends to a certain extent on himself. This was reflected in the folk folklore: "Every man is a blacksmith of his own fortune," "a bang and luck in his hands," "a short sword in the hands of a brave man become

Common determinants are considered in numerous theories of victimization include the uncontrollable power superiority of the stronger (and occupying more significant social positions), which results in violence against the weak, who are in less socially significant positions (Ranasinghe, 2013 p.827); traditional discrimination based on race, ethnicity, gender, sexual or sexual orientation, age, mental or physical disability; isolation from society, bureaucracy, depersonification, lack of communication (spiritual and emotional) between people, etc.

Most women, especially at the age of 18-23, are focused on finding a permanent partner for a family, which is accompanied by numerous acquaintances (not always safe), visits to various public places (clubs, dance floors, party apartments, etc.). , where the consumption of alcoholic beverages is widespread. All these circumstances can become dangerous in terms of sexual victimization, given that women are weaker physically and are not always able to protect themselves from physical violence by men (Davis 2007, p. 2009). That is why the number of victimized at this age is greater than in other age groups.

The woman will be victimized in any social conditions already by virtue of her physical data and natural predispositions. At the same time, there are also social determinants of the victimization of women whose parameters are subject to transformation in a changing world.

In rape, the object of crime is the woman's sexual freedom as a form of freedom and immunity in general, i.e. the possibility of free choice of sexual partners and entering into sexual relations with them. The offender causes the victim to submit to the force or threat of imminent death, serious physical injury, extreme pain, kidnapping, etc. With regard to rape of minors, the object of crime is also sexual inviolability. The interrelation between the concepts of sexual inviolability and sexual freedom is that sexual inviolability is an element (part) and a guarantee of the sexual freedom of the individual (Paceley, Goffnett & Gandy?Guedes, 2017). Therefore, encroachment on the sexual inviolability of a person automatically entails a violation of his sexual freedom.

More women than men are entering the job market hence increasing their likelihood of becoming the victims. Socio-economic environment caused by the implementation of democratic reforms, contribute to the increase of the social status of women, their significant involvement in the sphere of various social relations associated with a certain risk of being subjected to criminal influence, and, consequently, with the increase in the degree of victimization of women (Browne, 2007 p. 997).

The negative stereotypes existing in society about the role of women in society, its status, the idea of ??a woman's guilt in case of an attack against her, are forced to tolerate the violence that is carried out in some form on her (usually women with low social status); refraining from applying to the appropriate state bodies (typical for conflict situations in the family), which in most cases leads to the commission of a crime.

Fear and guilt makes women more likely to be victims than men. Unfavorable predictions of the state of hidden crime against women are determined by a set of external causes, the most significant of which is the lack of women's trust in the authorities exercising justice, confidence in the impunity of the perpetrator and the corruption of the entire law enforcement system. Under the circumstances, new negative trends are predicted, related to the desire of victims of violence to independently carry out the punishment of criminals, not excluding the possibility of seeking help from criminal structures. 

Current theories that can explain the victimization based on gender

The first theory focuses on individual factors as key victimization factor. Individual victimization is represented as a consequence of the gradual formation in the process of education of a victim who is unable to adequately respond to situations, including threats of becoming a victim of sexual violence. A set of personal factors forms a certain property of the individual, contributing in a particular life situation to the formation of conditions under which there is the possibility of causing harm to her (Bettani, 2012). This property is denoted by the term "victimality" From a psychological point of view, victimization is identified with inadequately low self-esteem, inability (and sometimes unwillingness) to assert one's own position and take responsibility for making decisions in problem situations, excessive willingness to accept the position of the other as the only true one, inadequate craving for subordination, and with an unjustified sense of guilt (Davis, 2006, p. 59). As one of the important factors of victimization is considered victim's human behavior. It is understood as the behavior of a person provoking (in certain circumstances conducive to this) violence against him, or behavior demonstrating non-resistance to the abuser. Some of the common behaviors include: passively-subordinate (passive submission and fulfillment of all requirements of the offender); pseudo-provocative (characterized by a manifestation of sexual interest in a potential assault, right up to direct promotion of sexual activity). All these types of behavior contribute to the commission of sexual violence against a person to whom such behavior is typical. Personality factors include certain biophysical, psychological, psychological and social properties of a person, acting as a "predisposition" to accepting the role of a victim (de Waal, Dekker, Kikkert, Kleinhesselink & Goudriaan, 2017 p. 7).

There is also lifestyle exposure theory of victimization. The theory considers the personal lifestyles of the victim as a key factor in the victimization. The theory postulates that people’s daily activities may naturally bring them into contact with crime, or they merely increase the risk of crime that victims experience. If a person spent a lot of time in public, the risk of becoming a victim increases (Paceley, Goffnett & Gandy?Guedes, 2017).

Another theory is routine activity theory. It was developed by Cohen and Felson (1979). The theory postulates that patterns of routine activities provide an opportunity structure for crime. Routine activities include formalized work, leisure and the ways by which humans acquire food, shelter and other basic needs (Meier and Miethe, 1993, p.463). 

How victimization has changed over time

In the past, men used to be the potential victims of crime. However, things have changed. There is noticeable increase in the rate at which women are victimized. This can be explained by change in socio-economic environment, which has forced most women to engage in industrial and economic activities (Pouwelse, Bolman, Lodewijkx & Spaa, 2011 p. 801). Socio-economic environment caused by the implementation of democratic reforms, contribute to the increase of the social status of women, their significant involvement in the sphere of various social relations associated with a certain risk of being subjected to criminal influence, and, consequently, with the increase in the degree of victimization of women (Meyer and Grollman, 2014 p. 461). With acquired status, women can move freely and easily. As suggested by the lifestyle exposure theory, victimization should be considered as a phenomenon that arises as a result of a certain lifestyle and repetitive behavior (this can be, for example, regular visits to parties, nightclubs, etc.). The new lifestyles acquired by women exposes them to criminals and that is why the rate of victimization on women is rising significantly.

Gender and risk of victimization

Obviously, insufficient attention to the sexual victimization of men is associated with various causes. To some extent, it may be due to the notion of "masculinity", including the "obvious" focus of sexual encroachment exclusively on women (Gershon, Minor & Hayward, 2008 p. 1381). The construction of ideas about "masculinity" is influenced by cultural, social and economic factors. Thus, in patriarchal societies, "masculinity" denies the possibility of being weak, especially in the sexual sphere (Chesney-Lind & Pasko, 2013). Aggressiveness, strength, assertiveness in conquering a partner of the opposite sex is the prerogative of a man. "Masculinity" in this case does not allow the probability of being a passive victim of harassment, since its quintessence is the ability to subjugate, conquer, seduce, master "femininity" (Champion, 2009 p. 79). Cultural, social and economic factors not only define the notions of "masculinity", but also influence the construction of cultural-specific relations between the sexes, taking into account some variation depending on gender, age, social status, social roles. So, criminal or undesirable behavior for one of the parties in the sexual sphere (first of all, this refers to an easy "violation of the limits of what is permitted") usually develops among young people and is associated with a natural desire to get acquainted and interest the partner. This process includes the prevailing ideas about the role of men and the myths about what a real man can and should do 

References

Meier, R. F. and Miethe, T. D. (1993). Understanding Theories of Criminal Victimization. Crime and Justice, 17, pp. 459-499

Moran, LJ, Skeggs, B, Tyrer, P, & Corteen K (2003), ‘The formation of fear in gay space: the ‘straights’ story’, Capital & Class, no. 80, 173-198.

Browne, K., (2007) (Re) making the other, heterosexualising everyday space. Environment and Planning A, 39(4), pp.996-1014.

Meyer, D. and Grollman, E.A., (2014), ‘Sexual orientation and fear at night: Gender differences among sexual minorities and heterosexuals’, Journal of homosexuality, 61(4), pp.453-470.

Ranasinghe, P., (2013) ‘Undoing’Gender and the Production of Insecurity and Fear. British Journal of Criminology, 53(5), pp.824-842.

Bettani, S., (2012), " Queering" Straightness: Heterosexual Experiences of Homonormative Spaces in Seattle (Doctoral dissertation).

Davis, K., (2007) Bondi’s underbelly: The ‘gay gang murders’. Queer Space: Centres and Peripheries, University of Technology, Sydney. Retrieved July, 1, p.2009.

Davis, K., (2006, Un/Monstrous Criminals-the ‘gay gang murders’:‘not like us’ and ‘just like us’. Dark Reflections, Monstrous Reflections: Essays on the Monster in Culture, p.59.

Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, L. (2013). Girls, women, and crime: selected readings. Los Angeles: Sage.

Pouwelse, M, Bolman, C, Lodewijkx, H, & Spaa, M (2011), 'Gender differences and social support: Mediators or moderators between peer victimization and depressive feelings?', Psychology in the Schools, 48 (8), pp. 800-814. Available from: 10.1002/pits.20589. [12 September 2018].

Champion, KM (2009), 'Victimization, Anger, and Gender: Low Anger and Passive Responses Work', American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79(1), pp. 71-82. Available from: 10.1037/a0015340. [12 September 2018].

Gershon, A, Minor, K, & Hayward, C (2008), 'Gender, victimization, and psychiatric outcomes', Psychological Medicine, 38 (10), pp. 1377-1391, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 12 September 2018.

de Waal, M, Dekker, J, Kikkert, M, Kleinhesselink, M, & Goudriaan, A (2017), 'Gender differences in characteristics of physical and sexual victimization in patients with dual diagnosis: a crosssectional study', BMC Psychiatry, 17, pp. 1-9, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 12 September 2018.

Paceley, M, Goffnett, J, & Gandy?Guedes, M (2017), 'Impact of victimization, community climate, and community size on the mental health of sexual and gender minority youth', Journal Of Community Psychology, 45(5), pp. 658-671, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 12 September 2018.