400285 Public Health : Ebola Assessment Answers
- Zika Virus
Answer:
Introduction
Ebola is one of the most dangerous diseases found across the world particularly in Africa nations, affecting both nonprimate and primates (World Health Organization, 2014). Since the period 1976 to the year 2014 Ebola virus epidemics (24) have been confirmed to be caused by Zaire Ebola virus in equatorial Africa. The outbreaks of Ebola have been small, but it has captured the attention of many in the world due to the high fatality rate caused by it as well as the primal way in which it kills (World Health Organization, 2014). In most cases the bat (fruit bat) are supposed seen as the virus carrier in nature, however, they spread the virus, but they are not affected by it (Gire, Goba, Andersen, Sealfon & Park, 2014). The signs include experiencing pain in muscles, sore throat, diarrhea, vomiting, fever and headache. A significant outbreak of Ebola virus was reported in the year 2014, in some parts of West Africa (Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia) being the deadliest, most extended and most complex in history (Gire, Park et al., 2014). One of the reasons why Ebola is very critical is because the symptoms appear quickly and are varied. However it resembles those of other viruses making it difficult to be diagnosed. The best way to survive is early diagnosis shadowed with supportive care. Regular seasonal weather change is a crucial factor when dealing with EVD. Animal migration and behavior patterns are mostly determined by weather. For example shift in climate promotes migration of bats and other animal species to plants and the living environments of human beings in search of food (Team, 2015).
Presently, as people destroy the natural habitat of organisms, they seem to move to other areas to find better habitats. Humans cut down trees to sustain their population since the human population compared to the past has increased drastically (Team, 2015). Most infected countries experienced several challenges that affected how they responded to the emergence of the outbreak of Ebola.
Role of Agent
Ebola is a viral disease caused by filoviridae virus family, and it's also known as Ebola hemorrhagic fever or EVD. It was discovered first in the year 1976 Zaire currently known as Congo (Baize, Pannetier , Oestereich, Rieger & Koivogui,2014). Ever since the Ebola virus has spread rapidly in Africa (central Africa). It has a high mortality rate of about almost 90%. The disease can affect both humans and its close relatives (primates). After contracting the disease, the signs begin to show after the second day and the third week immediately after disease contraction (BaizeKoivogui et al., 2014). The symptoms include experiencing pain in muscles, sore throat, diarrhea, vomiting, fever and headache. Consequently, the kidney and liver function begins to reduce and individuals start to experience internal and external bleeding. Ebola is a dangerous disease that kills at a faster rate (at least 25% and 90% of the individuals affected with it) (Dixon, & Schafer, 2014).
Direct contact of the fluids of the body spreads EVD, for example, if one gets in touch with humans and animals blood that is affected. Also, the contact involves direct contact with items that are contaminated with body fluids (Dixon, & Schafer, 2014). The affected individuals that have been affected by Ebola virus may still contain the virus for many weeks and months. In most cases, the bat (fruit bat) are supposed seen as the virus carrier in nature. However, they spread the virus, but they are not affected by it (Qiu, Wong, Audet, Bello & Fernando, 2014)
The Ebola virus replicates competently in many cells, thus generating an enormous amount of virus in macrophages, dendritic cells, and monocytes. Since the period 1976 to the year 2014 Ebola virus epidemics (24) have been confirmed to be caused by Zaire Ebola virus in equatorial Africa The duplication of the virus activates the high level of signals of chemical (inflammatory) which leads to a state that is septic (Dixon, & Schafer, 2014). The infection attacks mainly the body cells, for example, the cavity of the liver and immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and monocytes. The virus reproduces immediately after it's carried to the lymph nodes by the immune cells. Thus the virus is spread rapidly and enters the bloodstream and the lymphatic system, therefore distributing to all over the body (BaizeKoivogui et al., 2014). The viral agent infects the virus causing the death of the cells. It consequently causes abnormal lymphocytes concentration that is low in the blood. This leads to an immune system that is weak among infected individuals.
The Ebola virus does not divide through cell division, but they bring up their grown genetic sequence in the host cell DNA and therefore alter the normal cellular process in the body (Dixon, & Schafer, 2014). The cell of the host starts to produce proteins that are viral. In the process they bloom from the host cell, taking the portion of the cell peripheral membrane, therefore, enveloping themselves against detection by the system of the host immune. In most cases, the human immune system usually produces antibodies to fight infection, but for the case of EVD, the virus always multiplies rapidly that the immune system cannot catch up (World Health Organization, 2014).
Infection of endothelial cells happens after three days virus exposure, thus the cells breakdown causing injury of the blood vessels. The damage occurs as a result of glycoprotein synthesis of Ebola virus, which decreases particular integrins obtainability that help in adhesion of the cell to structures of the intercellular, hence causing damage of the liver, leading to inappropriate clotting (World Health Organization, 2014). The people affected experience widespread bleeding that result in shock and swelling due to blood volume loss. The replication of the Ebola virus overpowers the synthesis of proteins (of the infected cells) and the host immune defense (Baize, Pannetier , Oestereich, Rieger , Koivogui, et al., 2014).
Host and Environmental Factors
Environmental factors have significantly attributed to the spread and development of EVD. International partners and health officials in Guinea took an extended period to identify the cause of Ebola virus (Alexander, Sanderson, Marathe, Lewis & Rivers, 2015). By this moment the virus had already spread quickly affecting an enormous population of people in the west part of Africa. Ebola was an ancient disease in a new context, thus changing a significant number of people since the counties were not prepared to handle EVD since it appeared to be unfamiliar. People, therefore, did not understand what hit them at that time. Additionally, the government hadn't countered the social and economic confusion brought about by this disease. As a result, most were affected without understanding what was going on (Alexander, Rivers et al., 2015).
The epidemics of EDV begins specifically when one gets in contact with an infected individual or infected meat or body fluids of animals that are infected. Immediately the patients become sick or deceased; the virus can be transmitted to others who come in contact with the infected body, for example, contact with the skin, blood and other fluids of the body(Alexander, Rivers et al., 2015).
Climatic Change
Regular seasonal weather change is a crucial factor when dealing with EVD. Animal migration and behavior patterns are mostly determined by weather. For example shift in climate promotes migration of bats and other animal species to plants and the living environments of human beings in search of food (Watts, Adger, Agnolucci, Blackstock, Byass, et al,.2015). Thus in the process, they come in contact with a human, transmitting disease-causing organisms to them for example Ebola Ecoli. Also, the distribution of plants and water depend on the patterns of the weather; this influence infected animal movement into areas they would not be found. For example watts and colleagues found out a connection between the outbreaks of Ebola and shifts of unfamiliar drier than regular periods after rainy times (the animals that were infected moved deeper into the space of humans in search of food and water and/, or humans walked deeper into the forest also in search of food and water. Therefore it implies that during drier seasons Ebola outbreak is high (Watts, Adger, Agnolucci, Blackstock, Byass, et al,.2015).
Currently, the climatic change in West Africa is affecting the animal migration pattern because the region is becoming hotter. In this case may increase outbreaks of Ebola in the area because there will be an increase of humans contact with animals (Wesolowski, Buckee, Bengtsson, Wetter, Lu, & Tatem, 2014).
Presently, as people destroy the natural habitat of organisms, they seem to move to other areas to find better habitats. Humans cut down trees to sustain their population since the human population compared to the past has increased drastically (Wesolowski, Buckee, Bengtsson, Wetter, Lu, & Tatem, 2014). Therefore, the increase in genetic diversity of animals and interactions of humans in restricted areas signify a condition that is perfect for the evolution of the Ebola virus, which makes it develop into a vector that is exceedingly transmittable and deadly. Additionally, encroaching of animals and population of humans on each other space the chance of finding infected animals and feeding n contaminated crops is very high.
Filoviruses such as Ebola come about mostly in the tropical regions in Africa, specifically in rainforests that are humid. Thus the virus can move swiftly in both south and eastern part of Africa. Apart from Africa the Philippines also present Ebola Reston virus, since it experiences similar climatic conditions as tropical regions in Africa(Wong, Liu, Liu, Zhou, Bi, & Gao, 2015). The virus needs a host to be active biologically; thus they are an obligate and acellular organism. Some viruses can survive outside the body of the host while others cannot be able to survive outside the environment. In this case, the virus can be transmitted or transported both directly or indirectly (Wong et al., 2015). The Ebola virus enters the body and gets attached to the receptors in the body. Immediately the virus gets connected in the body the virus genome will be integrated into the DNA of the host. As the cell divides, the Ebola virus genome also divides rapidly. Thus the rate of mutation is high, therefore increasing pathogenicity (Wong et al., 2015).
Ebola virus is enveloped that causes harm to its host due to glycoprotein presence that causes the attachment to its host. Glycoprotein experience environmental exposure which binds to particular receptive of the host (Wesolowski, Buckee, Bengtsson, Wetter, Lu, & Tatem, 2014). This play a critical role in the communication of other cells and the external environment. Ebola as an enveloped virus can be found in the external environment in a concentration that is high (Wong et al., 2015). Nonetheless, this kind of environment enables the Ebola virus to persist outside the body of the host. It is this persistence of Ebola virus in the context that results in reoccurrence and infection risk among primates and non-primates. In this case, if the environment is adequately maintained the emergence of Ebola will be prevented. Most African countries experience sanitation problems thus presenting high risk to public health. Ebola virus disease is mainly ascribed to sanitation that is poor, as a result, the mortality rate is at its highest peak (Watts, Adger, Agnolucci, Blackstock and Byass, 2015).
Unsafe Water and Inadequate Excrete Disposal Facilities
The virus is transmitted among people through contact and contamination. For example, food scarcity promotes transmission of Ebola virus disease, since they decide to practice hunting and gathering thus they quickly come in connection with the animals that are infected. Additionally, nutrition lack required by the body of a person undergoes physiological disablement and incapability to react to the environment resulting to the vulnerability of the body, in consequence, EVD attacks readily (WattsByass et al.,2015).
Human beings may lack specific needs to sustain themselves (more especially the basic needs and a high number of infected individuals is the main reason for EVD spread more specifically in Africa) (Wesolowski et al., 2014). Consequently, displacement of the population also initiates EVD outbreak among people, in this case, if a member of a particular group is a disease carrier. If movement is not well looked out upon people are at the risk of contracting EVD. EVD geography may assist perfect the outbreaks and random cases of the virus of Ebola.
Accordingly, due environmental factors stated above EVD keeps on reoccurring in Africa. The original virus reservoir remains unknown; it's believed that during the first outbreak the virus might have persisted in the environmental permitting it to reoccur repeatedly over time. Environmental factors such as lack of sanitation, displacement, water supply, and geography stir up human possibility infection among the countries in Africa. They contribute to the biological, physical and chemical factors, which help in survival, transportation, and persistence of the Ebola virus. It’s necessary to understand the fate of the virus in the environment to properly study EVD, since they stand a high chance of infection, exclusively when the features are advantageous to them. People have to adapt to approaches that are therapeutic to prevent and control the disease. Increase mortality, about nonexistence treatment and vaccines makes the virus of Ebola an essential pathogen in public health and a group A biothreat pathogen (Wesolowski et al., 2014).
Potential Policy Responses
Individual responses were put in place to control the development and spread of the Ebola virus. Ebola first outbreak in Guinea was published on WHO website (Scott, 2015). It consisted of a ministry of health measures in partnership with international partners and WHO to regulate the outbreak and the spread of EVD further on humans. Some of this measures consisted of deployment of a multidisciplinary team in the different field to manage, trace and detect cases of the virus. The laboratories in the region were well prepared to handle more instances of the disease outbreak. Additionally, they set up rapidly isolation facilities.
Due to the increase of Ebola outbreak in the Africa regions, the health ministries were stimulated to reinforce their alert system and implement the appropriate necessities of the regulations of international health (Scott, 2015). New medical teams were mobilized (it involved physician experts) in preventing infection and also govern and support the clinicians at local hospitals. There was a need for the physicians' experts to go beyond traditional areas of the epidemiology, services of the laboratory, prevention and control of infection, management of the clinical case, and logistics to initiates medical anthropology, social mobilization, and communication experts. Populations’ opposition decided to join insufficient facilities of treatment and inadequate human resources as a critical barrier to control (AbramowitzFallah et al., 2015).
Additionally, specific responses put in place to control the development and spread of the Ebola virus included mobilization of religious and community leaders to spread more understanding awareness about the illness (AbramowitzFallah et al., 2015). I addition they also strengthened case study, observation, and tracing of contact to minimize the transmission of the diseases. People became more aware of the virus. Consequently, they were also informed of the concentrated transmission of EVD. A significant number of staffs were deployed to the infected areas, and even most participants agreed to fund the countries to the response (Scott, 2015).
Significant factors contributing to the spread of EVD were identified to be traditional and cultural practices, for example, burial practices. The virus is believed to be high after the death of individuals, since experiencing death means that replication is high, migrating patterns of the population within borders and countries, and insufficient handling with adequate measures of containment. Thus these factors contribute to the biological, physical and chemical factors, which help in survival, transportation, and persistence of Ebola virus (AbramowitzFallah et al., 2015). It's necessary to understand the fate of the virus in the environment to properly study EVD, since they stand a high chance of infection, exclusively when the features are advantageous to them. During the outbreak, it was necessary to facilitate ban travel and trading. Additionally, isolation promoted the reduced rate of transmission of the virus to other populations. However, this response advanced crippling and intensification of the hardship faced by the community (Scott, 2015).
Most infected countries experienced several challenges that affected how they responded to the emergence of the outbreak of Ebola. For example, the health systems were fragile, most lacked experienced in handling the disease (Ebola virus disease), profoundly moving population, the public did not have proper information concerning the virus (misconception) and the transmission mode.
Accordingly, international governments (UK and USA) in Sierra Leone and Liberia build treatment centers to facilitate the support and care of the infected population easily. Also, the UN Security Council emergency session was set up to analyze the epidemic implications as a threat to peace and security internationally (Scott, 2015). Throughout history the disease marked the first time provoked emergency session of the Security Council. Air Bridge was established to increase staff and material flow, this comprised of vehicles and medicines that were essential. Protective equipment needed to be supplied in large numbers since even the smallest treatment facilities need several of this equipment per day (AbramowitzFallah et al., 2015). This implies that some controlling the disease were a difficult task that needed proper attention all the time. Thus the responses required approachability to ensure it worked.
In conclusion, Ebola is one of the most dangerous diseases found across the world particularly in Africa nations, affecting both nonprimate and primates. Thus it needs extreme attention to ensure that development and the spread are controlled. Influenced by several factors such as climatic change, lack of sanitation, displacement, water supply, and geography which stir up human possibility infection among the countries in Africa The cure is yet to be discovered, therefore support and isolation is still the proper way of controlling the virus.
References
Abramowitz, S. A., McLean, K. E., McKune, S. L., Bardosh, K. L., Fallah, M., Monger, J., ... & Omidian, P. A. (2015). Community-centered responses to Ebola in urban Liberia: the view from below. PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 9(4), e0003706.
Alexander, K. A., Sanderson, C. E., Marathe, M., Lewis, B. L., Rivers, C. M., Shaman, J., ... & Eubank, S. (2015). What factors might have led to the emergence of Ebola in West Africa?. PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 9(6), e0003652.
Baize, S., Pannetier, D., Oestereich, L., Rieger, T., Koivogui, L., Magassouba, N. F., ... & Tiffany, A. (2014). Emergence of Zaire Ebola virus disease in Guinea. New England Journal of Medicine, 371(15), 1418-1425.
Dixon, M. G., & Schafer, I. J. (2014). Ebola viral disease outbreak--West Africa, 2014. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 63(25), 548-551.
Gire, S. K., Goba, A., Andersen, K. G., Sealfon, R. S., Park, D. J., Kanneh, L., ... & Wohl, S. (2014). Genomic surveillance elucidates Ebola virus origin and transmission during the 2014 outbreak. science, 1259657.
Judson, S., Prescott, J., & Munster, V. (2015). Understanding ebola virus transmission. Viruses, 7(2), 511-521.
Qiu, X., Wong, G., Audet, J., Bello, A., Fernando, L., Alimonti, J. B., ... & Johnson, A. (2014). Reversion of advanced Ebola virus disease in nonhuman primates with ZMapp. Nature, 514(7520), 47.
Scott, S. V. (2015). Implications of climate change for the UN Security Council: mapping the range of potential policy responses. International Affairs, 91(6), 1317-1333.
Team, W. E. R. (2015). Ebola virus disease among children in West Africa. The New England journal of medicine, 372(13), 1274.
Team, W. E. R. (2015). West African Ebola epidemic after one year—slowing but not yet under control. The New England journal of medicine, 372(6), 584.
Watts, N., Adger, W. N., Agnolucci, P., Blackstock, J., Byass, P., Cai, W., ... & Cox, P. M. (2015). Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health. The Lancet, 386(10006), 1861-1914.
Wesolowski, A., Buckee, C. O., Bengtsson, L., Wetter, E., Lu, X., & Tatem, A. J. (2014). Commentary: containing the Ebola outbreak-the potential and challenge of mobile network data. PLoS currents, 6.
Wong, G., Liu, W., Liu, Y., Zhou, B., Bi, Y., & Gao, G. F. (2015). MERS, SARS, and Ebola: the role of super-spreaders in infectious disease. Cell host & microbe, 18(4), 398-401.
World Health Organization. (2014). WHO: Ebola response roadmap situation report 15 October 2014.
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