Py1102 | Exploring Psychology | Assessment Answers

Case Study One — David (Age 12 Years)

David is a popular pupil at a Secondary School for Boys in an affluent area of Essex. Having been there for six months the Special Education Needs Coordinator (SENCO) has written home to suggest he have extra Mathematics lessons as he has been having considerable trouble keeping up with his classmates. David does not want to engage with special educational needs classes and has exhibited resistance and some verbal aggression to teachers at the proposal. After taking David out of class and condualrSatCDflef mathematic test with him the SENCO suspects he has a mild form of dyscalculia. He is very embarrassed by his inability to do basic maths calculations. His teacher states, "Many times I have seen other pupils come to David for assistance with spelling for some of their work, and this above all shows the correspondence of both his social and academic status". David's parents have expressed a willingness to engage with extra curriculum activities at home but caution that David is very resistant and prefers football and sports. The school needs a coordinated approach to help David achieve well as he enters a period of exams and assessment and throughout the coming years.

You are required to write a report on it.

Mild dyscalculia affects various aspects of math learning and better performance (Olsson, Östergren, & Träff, 2016). It is important to note that different individuals are presented with different challenges. Ideally, the most common problem experienced in mild dyscalculia is with number sense (Landerl, Göbel, & Moll, 2013). The number sense is concerned with an intuitive understanding and comprehending how numbers work. Additionally, number sense has to do with evaluating how to make comparison and estimation of quantities on a number line (Kucian et al., 2014; Olsson, Östergren, &Träff, 2016). Some studies concur that the number sense is at the epicenter of math learning. Therefore, it is not in a position to effectively comprehend and understand the basics of how numbers work, the activity of math learning and its application in everyday life is very confusing and frustrating (Iuculano, 2016; Wilson et al., 2015). Studies have shown that even babies at birth have a basic sense of numbers while others do not have the basics (Kucian & von Aster, 2015; MohdSyah et al., 2016).

David may be unable to recall number facts, formula, procedures, and they are partaking in when solving problems (Olsson, Östergren, & Träff, 2016; Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013). Additionally, David may show marked computational weaknesses. For instance, a learner may not be in a position to write numbers clearly and may be reading the mathematical signs inappropriately (Noël, Rousselle, & De Visscher, 2016). An individual with mild dyscalculia cannot make an abstract representation of concrete ideas and facts. Additionally, David has been showing difficulties in making a connection between mathematics to real life situations. Mild dyscalculia is characterized by disorganization, loss of sight of the intended goal, failure to identify relevant instructions in word problems (MohdSyah et al., 2016; McCaskey et al., 2017). Furthermore, David’s condition may lead to difficulties in comprehension of perceptual and visual-spatial aspects of mathematics.

There are several possible causes of causes of mil dyscalculia. The first cause is thought to be as a result of genes and hereditary. A number studies conducted on dyscalculia indicate that it is much more prevalent in some families than others (Landerl, Göbel, & Moll, 2013; McCaskey et al., 2017). It is believed that the mild dyscalculia is caused by various environmental, biological, and cognitive factors. Indeed, several studies have proposed that mild dyscalculia is associated with genetic factors. This finding is supported by research conducted on dizygotic and monozygotic twins where about 39% and 58% revealed the occurrence of dyscalculia (Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013). Researchers have shown that persons suffering from dyscalculia do have a parent or a sibling presenting the same difficulties in doing math (Noël, Rousselle, & De Visscher, 2016; Butterworth, 2014).  Therefore, dyscalculia is thought to be genetically initiated. Another cause of dyscalculia is an abnormality in brain development. In this regard, it would be imperative to determine the cause of David’s mild dyscalculia so that appropriate interventions may be initiated.

It suffices to point out that many studies have focused on brain development to shed some light on the onset of dyscalculia (Simms et al., 2015). In David’s case, high-tech brain imaging equipment ought to be used so as to study the brain to ascertain his ability or inability to understand math (MohdSyah et al., 2016; Wilson et al., 2015). Studies have found huge differences in thickness, surface area, and volume as far as the brain is concerned. These aspects of the brain are associated with memory and learning, recalling math facts, and monitoring tasks (Olsson, Östergren, &Träff, 2016).

Another factor that may have contributed to David’s mild dyscalculia is the environment. It is imperative to note that the environment has a strong bearing on the development of dyscalculia (Sella et al., 2013). Many studies have linked dyscalculia to great exposure to alcohol in a pregnant woman. Therefore, individuals who had been exposed to alcohol while they were still in the womb have a greater propensity to suffer from dyscalculia (McCaskey et al., 2017). Other studies have revealed that premature and children born with low weight may suffer from dyscalculia. Additionally, brain injury is also another leading cause of dyscalculia. Studies have revealed that injuries in some parts of the brain lead to acquired dyscalculia (Price, & Ansari, 2013; Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013).

David’s mild dyscalculia may present itself in several ways. It is important to note that most people are in a position to interact with their environment from an early age (Chiappini et al., 2016). They can come up with strategies to face the daily life and understand basic concepts.  People who have learning disabilities cannot effectively process cognitive information. Such individuals are not capable of getting solutions to simple problems that they face (De Visscher et al., 2015). In this regard, David may lack the ability to express his problems as a result of cognitive challenges effectively. In most cases, individuals with dyscalculia find it hard to socialize with their compatriots (Mazzocco et al., 2013; Noël, Rousselle, & De Visscher, 2016). Such individuals have difficulties in problem-solving, and reading among other tasks (Attout & Majerus, 2015; Olsson, Östergren, & Träff, 2016).

David’s mild dyscalculia is linked to various types of math difficulties. The symptoms of dyscalculia may vary from one person to another (Siegel, 2015). It is imperative to note that parents and children caretakers should observe and take notes on such symptoms in order to devise a good solution. An individual may present different signs and symptoms from the rest of who are suffering from dyscalculia (Skagerlund, & Träff, 2016; Olsson, Östergren, &Träff, 2016). These symptoms appear different about age. It is important to note that the signs and symptoms of dyscalculia become more prominent in older people than in children. Mild dyscalculia can be detected at preschool age, and the following could be the warning signs. First, the child may have difficulties in learning how to count (Van Hoof et al., 2016; Simms et al., 2015). This symptom is evident in a situation where a child is not in a position to assign every object in a particular group a number. Secondly, experience difficulties in number symbol recognition (Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013). Thirdly, David may not be in a position to make a meaningful connection between numbers to real life situation (Wang et al., 2015; Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013). Fourth, mild dyscalculia often renders an individual not to able to remember numbers.

It is important to point out that mild dyscalculia not only affects a person’s ability to do math but also capacity to understand other aspects of learning (Wilson et al., 2015).  David’s social skills is affected by the mild dyscalculia. Studies have shown that when a person fail in mathematics, he/she assumes that failure is inevitable in other areas in life (Zhou & Cheng, 2015). Moreover, David appears to be developing low self-esteem and may lack the ability to effectively participate in school after school activities (Olsson, Östergren, &Träff, 2016). Secondly, an individual with mild dyscalculia may not have a sense of direction. This is to say, that the person may experience difficulties in reading maps or telling directions. Additionally, children who suffer from dyscalculia have problems with having mental pictures (Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013).

Moreover, a child who suffers from dyscalculia has problems with physical coordination.  Mild dyscalculia affects the mechanism of work between the brain and the eyes (Noël, Rousselle, & De Visscher, 2016; Olsson, Östergren, & Träff, 2016). In this condition, David may have problems in determining distance existing between objects. In some cases, a person with dyscalculia is presented with the challenge of management of money. Such individuals lack the ability to prepare and stick to a particular budget (Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013). Similarly, time management is greatly affected by dyscalculia. An individual with mild dyscalculia lacks the ability to make a measurement of quantities such as time. Challenges experienced regarding impaired skills can be managed effectively through sound strategies that put into consideration individual strengths and weaknesses (McCaskey et al., 2017).

Diagnosing mild dyscalculia at an early age is important. Parents should be able to notice when their children have difficulties with math (Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013). Dyscalculia has not been researched extensive, and exhaustively and therefore, its identification may be a little bit complicated (McCaskey et al., 2017). Evidence shows that there is no single test for dyscalculia and as such, several steps are involved. The first step is to take the individual for a medical examination. Both the parent and a pediatrician should engage the child in different activities to gauge their abilities (Noël, Rousselle, & De Visscher, 2016).

It is also vital to determine other medical conditions that may be contributing to the dyscalculia condition. Inevitably, math issues are evident in persons who show particular genetic disorders. The help of an educational psychologist or a neurologist should be sought in the diagnosis of dyscalculia cases (Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013). The second step in the diagnosis of dyscalculia is the involvement of educational professionals. Such professionals should be trained to avail tests for the determination of math skills.

Practical experiences have shown that there are several ways of performance profiles both for calculating and numerical skills (Fias, Menon, &Szucs, 2013). In fact, this assertion confirms that there varied subtypes of dyscalculia. It suffices to mention that multiple cognitive issues are thought to contribute to dyscalculia. Several empirical studies have shown that deficient understanding of measure and quantity has been the most area of interest in the preceding research on dyscalculia by empirical means (Attout & Majerus, 2015; McCaskey et al., 2017).

When an individual is suspected of suffering from dyscalculia, there is need to prepare an exhaustive diagnostic evaluation (Skagerlund, & Träff, 2016; Kucian & von Aster, 2015). This is imperative because it helps in keeping an accurate account of the nature of complexity. Taking an accurate account of the child’s condition is important because it will reveal the complex nature of the learning disorder (Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013). It makes it possible to gauge the strengths and the weaknesses of the child more so in calculations and numbers. In carrying out this nature of diagnosis, two instruments are often employed. These diagnostic instruments include the neuropsychological and the curricular.

It is worth noting the use of curricular tests alone is not sufficient because these individuals already perform below the grade level of calculation and numerical tasks (Olsson, Östergren, &Träff, 2016). The application of curricular tests alone will not provide a clear picture of the child’s abilities or disabilities hence leading to the implementation of inappropriate interventions (Olsson, Östergren, & Träff, 2016).

Strategies for Dealing with David’s Case

It is paramount to point out that treatment of individuals with mild dyscalculia is complex. This complexity is brought about by the heterogeneity of mild dyscalculia (Mazzocco et al., 2013). Additionally, the treatment is complex owing to the comorbid disorders that associated with the condition (Olsson, Östergren, &Träff, 2016). To ensure that a lasting therapeutic intervention is achieved, treatment ought to be tailor-made to suit each. Additionally, such therapeutic instrument must be adapted to the patient’s cognitive profile (Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013). These interventions should include psychotherapy and medications.

The school should develop a common standard to be used in reflecting the skills and knowledge of people in colleges and pursuing different careers (Chiappini et al., 2016; Mazzocco et al., 2013). These standards often guide teachers in numerous ways. The use of these standards assists teachers in providing the best curricula activities and teaching strategies. For instance, when a teacher uses formal and tested standards to teach persons with dyscalculia, the students end up with a deep understanding of the subject matter. They are equally capable of applying their acquired knowledge in everyday life (Ashkenazi, Mark?Zigdon, & Henik, 2013). When this is done, David will be in a position to learn effectively and overcome the challenges of the mild dyscalculia. It suffices to point out that the standards foresee changes in the manner in which math is taught. This leads to a great influence on instructional strategies that teachers use. Various studies on dyscalculia have identified instructional strategies that include research and problem solving, high order questioning, collaborative learning, and assessment that is embedded in instruction (Iuculano, 2016; Wilson et al., 2015).

Several professionals can be consulted in helping David who is suspected of having mild dyscalculia. Teachers are indispensable in helping individuals with the condition of dyscalculia (Noël, Rousselle, & De Visscher, 2016; Mazzocco et al., 2013). There is a plethora of literature that supports the assertion that teachers are integral in assisting persons with dyscalculia right from pre-school all the way to college and university level. Teachers can use the response to intervention which is a program designed by schools to assist David who may lag behind as result of mild dyscalculia. The use of this program helps students to gain skills and ideas in math problems (Wang et al., 2015; Butterworth, 2014). Through this program, teachers are in a position to provide David with specific instructions.

Additionally, teachers can apply the informal support which are strategies employed by teachers to assist students with learning difficulties (Olsson, Östergren, & Träff, 2016). The greatest strategy in supporting David who is suspected to be suffering from mild dyscalculia should allow more time for completion of assignments in class. Students who have mild dyscalculia should be encouraged to use calculators if need be (Sella et al., 2013). They should be assisted to use visual materials which are essential in developing the understanding of concepts in math. There should be a thorough use of information and communication technology to aid in learning (Mazzocco et al., 2013).

In addition, the school ought to encourage David to work with his friends so that they can learn from each other in a class. The learning process in class should be fun so as to attract the attention of David who has mild dyscalculia (MohdSyah et al., 2016;). This is important because of an individual with dyscalculia experience behavior problems (Noël, Rousselle, & De Visscher, 2016; Butterworth, 2014). Furthermore, learning activities should be tailored to take ten minutes so as to maintain the attention of students. Parents ought to be involved in the learning (MohdSyah et al., 2016). Parents should encourage participation in the learning process. Additionally, the school management and teachers should be friendly and be in a position to use encouraging words towards the David so as to earn their trust (MohdSyah et al., 2016). Additionally, the school should develop a framework which involves a multi-sensory approach where David can write, hear, say, and handle numbers simultaneously (Olsson, Östergren, & Träff, 2016).

The school should promote co-curricular activities so as to enable David to integrate with other students effectively. David enjoys playing football and as such it is a source of fun and motivation. To this end, David will be able to express himself better and appreciate the help that is accorded to him.

Conclusion

Teaching students with disabilities is usually a daunting task for teachers. Teachers are required to first, understand how to deal with students with mild dyscalculia. The mild dyscalculia considerably affects learners’ abilities in many different ways. Learning disabilities are common in many individuals. Since mild dyscalculia can be a lifelong condition, patients should be helped to cope with its challenges. There need to develop proper strategies that are tailor made to suit each learner and address his/her challenges. Both parents and teachers should work closely alongside other professionals to find the most effective intervention. Additionally, teachers should prepare their content and instructional strategies in a manner that suits the learning needs of every individual. It is imperative to opine that learners with difficulties in understanding math require a strategy that is different from those with difficulties in reading.  In fact, proponents of the integrated classroom have argued that a teacher should never separate students with learning disabilities from those with no disability. In a nutshell, it is upon the teachers to create a balance and to ensure that every student leaves the classroom with the desired result.

Reference

Ashkenazi, S., Mark?Zigdon, N., &Henik, A. (2013). Do subitizing deficits in developmental dyscalculia involve pattern recognition weakness?.Developmental Science, 16(1), 35-46.

Attout, L., & Majerus, S. (2015). Working memory deficits in developmental dyscalculia: The importance of serial order. Child Neuropsychology, 21(4), 432-450.

Butterworth, B. (2014). Dyscalculia: from brain to education. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 56, 6.

Chiappini, G., Cozzani, G., Verna, S., Potente, C., & De Carli, F. (2016). An educational method for evaluating the resistance to the treatment in the diagnosis of dyscalculia. [email protected] re-Open Journal per la formazione in rete, 16(1), 37-54.

De Visscher, A., Szmalec, A., Van Der Linden, L., & Noël, M. P. (2015). Serial-order learning impairment and hypersensitivity-to-interference in dyscalculia. Cognition, 144, 38-48.

Devine, A., Soltész, F., Nobes, A., Goswami, U., &Sz?cs, D. (2013). Gender differences in developmental dyscalculia depend on diagnostic criteria. Learning and Instruction, 27, 31-39.

Fias, W., Menon, V., &Szucs, D. (2013). Multiple components of developmental dyscalculia. Trends in neuroscience and education, 2(2), 43-47.

Kucian, K., Ashkenazi, S. S., Hänggi, J., Rotzer, S., Jäncke, L., Martin, E., & von Aster, M. (2014). Developmental dyscalculia: a dysconnectionsyndrome?.Brain Structure and Function, 219(5), 1721-1733.

Landerl, K., Göbel, S. M., & Moll, K. (2013). Core deficit and individual manifestations of developmental dyscalculia (DD): the role of comorbidity. Trends in neuroscience and education, 2(2), 38-42.

Iuculano, T. (2016). Neurocognitive accounts of developmental dyscalculia and its remediation. Progress in Brain Research, 227, 305-333.

Kucian, K., & von Aster, M. (2015). Developmental dyscalculia. European journal of pediatrics, 174(1), 1-13.

Mazzocco, M. M., Myers, G. F., Lewis, K. E., Hanich, L. B., & Murphy, M. M. (2013). Limited knowledge of fraction representations differentiates middle school students with mathematics learning disability (dyscalculia) versus low mathematics achievement. Journal of experimental child psychology, 115(2), 371-387.

McCaskey, U., von Aster, M., Tuura, R. O. G., &Kucian, K. (2017). Adolescents with Developmental Dyscalculia Do Not Have a Generalized Magnitude Deficit–Processing of Discrete and Continuous Magnitudes. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11.

MohdSyah, N. E., Hamzaid, N. A., Murphy, B. P., & Lim, E. (2016). Development of computer play pedagogy intervention for children with low conceptual understanding in basic mathematics operation using the dyscalculia feature approach. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(7), 1477-1496.

Noël, M. P., Rousselle, L., & De Visscher, A. (2016). Both Specific and General Cognitive Factors Account for Dyscalculia. Special Needs in Mathematics Education, 35.

Olsson, L., Östergren, R., &Träff, U. (2016). Developmental dyscalculia: A deficit in the approximate number system or an access deficit?.Cognitive Development, 39, 154-167.

Price, G. R., & Ansari, D. (2013). Dyscalculia: Characteristics, causes, and treatments. Numeracy, 6(1), 2.

Sella, F., Berteletti, I., Brazzolotto, M., Lucangeli, D., &Zorzi, M. (2013). Number line estimation in children with developmental dyscalculia. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 11(2), 41-49.

Siegel, M. R. (2015). Research exercise: The implications for instruction under The Common Core State Standards in Mathematics and the effect on students with Dyscalculia.

Simms, V., Gilmore, C., Cragg, L., Clayton, S., Marlow, N., & Johnson, S. (2014). Nature and origins of mathematics difficulties in very preterm children: a different etiology than developmental dyscalculia. Pediatric research, 77(2), 389-395.

Skagerlund, K., &Träff, U. (2016). Number processing and heterogeneity of developmental dyscalculia: Subtypes with different cognitive profiles and deficits. Journal of learning disabilities, 49(1), 36-50.

Van Hoof, J., Verschaffel, L., Ghesquière, P., & Van Dooren, W. (2016, January). The natural number bias and its role in rational number understanding in children with dyscalculia: delay or deficit?. In Proceedings of the 40th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (PME) (pp. x-xx).

Wang, E., Qin, S., Chang, M., & Zhu, X. (2015). Digital memory encoding in Chinese dyscalculia: An event-related potential study. Research in developmental disabilities, 36, 142-149.

Wilson, A. J., Andrewes, S. G., Struthers, H., Rowe, V. M., Bogdanovic, R., &Waldie, K. E. (2015). Dyscalculia and dyslexia in adults: cognitive bases of comorbidity. Learning and Individual Differences, 37, 118-132.

Zhou, X., & Cheng, D. (2015). When and why numerosity processing is associated with developmental dyscalculia. The Routledge international handbook of dyscalculia and mathematical learning difficulties, 78-89.