Hbm1001 Anatomy And Physiology For Assessment Answers

Questions:

1. List the six processes that define living from non-living objects.

2. Define the following transport mechanisms – active transport, passive (simple and facilitated) transport.

3. Define the term “osmosis” including explanations of hydrostatic and osmotic forces

Answers:

1. Reproduction
Growth and development
Responding to stimuli
Breathing

Excretion
Movement

2. Active transport refers to ion and/or molecule movement through a cell membrane to a higher concentrated area with the assistance of enzymes and this requires energy.

Passive transport involves the movement of ions and/or molecules from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration without the use of energy.

3. Osmosis refers to the movement of solvent molecules from a less concentrated solution through a semipermeable membrane into a more concentrated solution leading to equal concentrations on both sides of the membrane. The difference between the initial concentrations of the solutions on both sides creates osmotic pressure which leads to the movement of water molecules from the less concentrated side through a membrane to the more concentrated side. Hydrostatic pressure refers to the tendency of water molecules to remain where they are without moving out of a solution. An increase in osmotic pressure overcomes hydrostatic pressure allowing water molecules to move from a solution to a more concentrated one.

Cells, Tissues and Organs

Question 1

The plasma membrane consists of a phospholipids, proteins and cholesterol and proteins fluid. It also has glycolipids glycoproteins extending from its outward-facing surface. The plasma membrane is referred to as a mosaic model because it consists of a phospholipid which has different protein molecules floating within it. Described to be partly fluid the plasma membrane has some of its parts moving around freely when unattached to other cell parts.

Question 2

Table 1: Comparison between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion
	SIMPLE DIFFUSION	FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Properties of molecule transported	Small & nonpolar molecules	Polar & larger ions
Active / passive transport?	Passive	Active
Plasma membrane proteins required	Channel proteins	Both carrier & channel proteins
Movement of the molecules across the membrane	Molecules usually move down a concentration gradient	molecules usually move up a concentration gradient

Question 3

Table 2: Cell Junctions: structure and functions
	Desmosomes
Structure	Cell adhesion proteins & linking proteins
Function	Creates cell-to-cell adhesion
Found in	Found in the simple and/or stratified squamous epithelium
	Gap Junctions
Structure	Are intercellular channels consisting of head-to-head docked hexameric assemblies of channel proteins referred to as connexions
Function	Allow ion, second messengers, and/or small metabolite exchange between different adjacent cells
Found in	At intercellular joints in solid tissues

Question 4

Table 3: Structure and function of different connective tissues
	Areolar
Structure	A loose connective tissue consisting of collagen, elastic tissue and reticular fibre meshwork, with numerous connective tissue cells in between it.
Function	Holds organs in place. Attaching epithelial tissue to underlying tissues. Water and salt reservoir for surrounding tissues.
	Dense regular connective tissue
Structure	Densely packed collagen fibres arranged in parallel.
Function	Form ligaments to connect bone to born and/or cartilage to muscle
	Elastic connective tissue
Structure	Made of elastin bundles in the extracellular matrix of connective tissues.
Function	Provides resistance to forces of stretch.
	Hyaline cartilage
Structure	Consists of type II collagen and chondroitin sulphate found within the elastic cartilage.
Function	Provides smooth surfaces to enable tissues to move and/or slide over each other easily. These include joints. Hyaline cartilage also provides both flexibility and support.
	Fibrocartilage
Structure	A tough cartilage consisting of chondrocytes that are scattered among dense collagen bundles within the matrix that are clearly visible. Has no perichondrium.
Function	It has cartilaginous ground substance and/or dense bundles of collagen which allow it to resist deformation of intervertebral disks and the symphysis pubis when under great stress. The fibrocartilage attaches bone to bone and provides restricted mobility.

Question 5

The 3 muscle tissue types include cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscles. The cardiac muscle cells located in heart are striated and are usually under involuntary control.

The smooth muscles are within hollow visceral organ walls except in the heart. They are spindle-shaped and also under the body’ involuntary control. Skeletal muscles are found attached to the body skeleton. Skeletal muscle fibres are striated but under voluntary control.

Question 6

Tissue repair occurs in phases. The inflammatory phase as the first one occurs between day 1 and 7 after injury where acute inflammation and bleeding initially occurs resulting into pain, swelling, heat and redness. Inflammation breaks down damaged cells and digests them in preparation for the next phase. The second phase is referred to as fibroblastic repair phase which begins from Day 4 till 6 weeks. The damaged tissue starts being repaired through a disorganized laying down of collagen fibres forming a scar tissue that is weaker and/or less flexible as compared to the surrounding normal tissues. The remodelling phase is the last phase that starts from 2 to 3 weeks after injury. The quality strength and organization of the tissue improve as the cellular collagen fibre organization occurs with increased strength of the bonds between them. Addition of stress to the tissues at this time helps realign those fibres along proper stress line making the tissues to be in position to accommodate more loads placed on them.

Part C: Homeostasis and Disease Progression

Question 1

A molecule is usually formed by the joining of two or more atoms chemically. On the other hand, compound refers to a molecule consisting of at least two elements that are different.

H₂O above is both a molecule and a compound.

Question 2

Chemical reaction refers to process where a substance or more as reactants; are converted to one and/or more substances different from the reactants referred to as product(s).

From the above equation, H₂Oand CO₂ are reactants which react to form H₂CO₃(product).

Question 3

H₂CO₃is an acid while the HCO₃^- is a weak base. This is because the released hydrogen ion remains attached to attached thus not free in solution meaning there is no pH change.

Question 4

An increase in carbon dioxide increases the formation of carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is however always in equilibrium with bicarbonate in solution.

Significant carbonic acid and/or bicarbonate amounts lead to the formation of a buffer written as shown.
H₂CO₃ + H₂O H₃O⁺ + HCO₃^-

The blood buffer consisting of high base concentration helps in neutralizing the carbonic acid. Where more carbon dioxide is present, carbonic acid concentration lowers in the blood. The instability of carbonic acid in aqueous solutions makes some of it to decompose forming water and carbon dioxide. The respiratory system is responsible for removing the carbon dioxide.
Question 5

Loss of normal control of cell division results in to abnormal cell division. In this case, basal cells begin to divide faster than required to replenish those cells being shed. Each of the newly formed cells also has the capacity to get divided thus resulting in an increase in the dividing cell numbers. This is simply referred to as cancer.

Question 6

· Smoking(Nicotine)

· Radiation

· Carcinogenic chemicals

· Exposure to viruses and/or hormones

Question 7

Table 1 – Adaptive changes in cells
Term	Definition
Atrophy	The wasting away of a body tissue/organ resulting from cell degeneration.
Hypertrophy	Refers to tissue/organ enlargement due to cellular enlargement.
An aplasia	The lack of neoplastic cell differentiation.
Dysplasia	The presence of abnormal cell types in a given tissue; which normally indicates the possibility of cancer development.
Metaplasia	The reversible change of a differentiated cell into another type of cell.
Apoptosis	The normal cellular death which occurs through normal and/or controlled growth and development.
Necrosis	Death of majority and/or all cells of a given tissue/organ resulting from injury, diseases and a lack of blood supply.

Question 9: Signs & Symptoms of Hyperthermia

· Coma

· Fainting

· Confusion,

· Fever

· Muscle cramps

· Nausea

· Faster hear rate.

Part D: Integumentary System

Question 1

The integumentary system comprises of the glands, hair, nails, skin, and nerves. It major function includes acting as a barrier and protection of the body from any factors in the external environment. It also retains body fluids, protects against diseases, eliminates wastes, and regulates the body temperature.

Question 2

Signs and Symptoms Of Skin Cancers, including Melanoma

· Non-healing sores

· Pigment spread from spot border to the surrounding skin

· Redness occurs beyond the border of the sore spot

· Itchiness, tenderness and pain

· Changes in mole surface

Question 3

Cellular changes in melanoma are caused by ultraviolet (UV) rays which damage skin cells’ DNA. The damage disrupts normal cell division leading to abnormal cell division where basal cells of the skin develop faster than cells that need normal shed-off. These cells can even divide further forming tumours as melanoma. The loss of normal control mechanism caused by triggers normally turns on oncogenes while also turning off the skin’s tumour suppressor genes. This leads to melanoma where there is abnormal cell division as stated above.

Question 4:

· Ultraviolet rays from the sun and from tanning beds

· Radiation

· Chemical solvents

Question 5

Causes of Burns

· Fire

· Electrical current

· Hot liquid/steam

· Chemicals

Classification of Burns

1. First degree burns-only epidermis burnt

2. Second degree burns-epidermis and part of dermis

3. Destroys epidermis, dermis and even the subcutaneous layer of skin.

Part E: Musculo-skeletal System

Question 1

Function of the skeletal system

· Support-Leg, pelvic and vertebral column bones hold the body up.

· Protection-The bones enclose and also protect lungs, brain, heart, bone marrow and the spinal cord.

· Movement-Skeletal muscles facilitate movement of legs and arms. Also enable ventilation through facilitation rib movement.

Question 2

The bones forming the skeleton function as reservoirs for calcium, phosphorus and essential minerals. Muscles contain troponin protein which helps to hold tropomyosin on the actin filament in place. Muscle contraction needs troponin and the tropomyosin to be moved in order to reveal myosin-binding sites. At this point, calcium mobilized from bones triggers the movement of the two proteins. The binding of calcium to troponin protein leads to a change in the shape of troponin molecule effecting contraction.

Question 3

Myofibril consists of thick and/or thin myofilaments which give the striped appearance of the muscle. The thick filaments consist of myosin while the thin filaments are mainly actin including tropomyosin and troponin.The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions into the muscle so as to bind to troponin, and this causes tropomyosin shifting actin from the filament face producing contraction.

Question 4

Table 4: Comparison of different types of muscle contractions
	Description	Example
ISOMETRIC	The muscle activates with both force and tension but no movement occurs at a given joint. The joint remains static. No muscle fibre lengthening and/or contraction thus limb movement.	When doing wall-sit exercise where one seems to sit on an invisible chair.
ISOTONIC	The muscle shortens thus overcoming resistance making at least one joint to move leading to body movement.	When lifting weight.

Question 5

Aging leads to osteoporosis where the bone density decreases as a result of decrease in the bone extracellular matrix. Contraindicated manual therapies among people with osteoporosis include twisting movements, exercise involving abrupt/explosive loading, and those with high-impact loading.

Question 6: Signs and Symptoms of Fibromyalgia.

· Pain

· Lack of sleep

· Morning stiffness

· Problems with cognitive memory

· Headaches

· Restless legs

· Painful menstrual periods

References

Abduljabbar, H. (2015). Reproductive and Sexual Anatomy. Anatomy & Physiology, s5. https://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2161-0940.s5-002

Chapple, W. (2013). Anatomy and Physiology in the Modern Era: Blurring the Borders of Traditional Disciplines. Anatomy & Physiology, 03(02). https://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2161-0940.1000e125

Cohen, D., & Lee, P. (2016). Photodynamic Therapy for Non-Melanoma Skin Cancers. Cancers, 8(10), 90. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cancers8100090

Dasika, S., Kinsey, S., & Locke, B. (2011). Facilitated diffusion of myoglobin and creatine kinase and reaction-diffusion constraints of aerobic metabolism under steady-state conditions in skeletal muscle. Biotechnology And Bioengineering, 109(2), 545-558. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bit.23329

Dean, L., Breslin, A., & Ross, E. (2014). Is it hot in here? Thermoregulation and homeostasis through an exercise activity. AJP: Advances In Physiology Education, 38(1), 99-100. https://dx.doi.org/10.1152/advan.00101.2013

Faniku, C., Wright, C., & Martin, P. (2015). Connexins and pannexins in the integumentary system: the skin and appendages. Cellular And Molecular Life Sciences, 72(15), 2937-2947. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00018-015-1969-0

Lee, J., & Kang, M. (2011). Effects Of Different Types Of Isokinetic Muscle Contractions On Recovery From Muscle Damage. Medicine & Science In Sports & Exercise, 43(Suppl 1), 882. https://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000402461.69740.57

Meskell, M. (2010). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. Journal Of Anatomy, 217(5), 631-631. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2010.01292.x

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